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Figure 3: Sea stars can reproduce through fragmentation. The large arm, a fragment from another sea star, is developing into a new individual. Note that in fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable difference in the size of the individuals, whereas in fission, two individuals of approximate size are formed.
Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the process and the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water flees, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees.
Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males drones. If eggs are fertilized, diploid females develop, and if the fertilized eggs are fed special diet so called royal jelly , a queen is produced. Some vertebrate animals—such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish—also reproduce through parthenogenesis.
Although more common in plants, parthenogenesis has been observed in animal species that were segregated by sex in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a blacktop shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from males.
Sexual reproduction is the combination of usually haploid reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third usually diploid unique offspring. Sexual reproduction produces offspring with novel combinations of genes. This can be an adaptive advantage in unstable or unpredictable environments. As humans, we are used to thinking of animals as having two separate sexes—male and female—determined at conception.
However, in the animal kingdom, there are many variations on this theme. Hermaphroditism occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts.
Invertebrates such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms and snails, shown in [Figure 4] , are often hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams.
Figure 4: Many snails are hermaphrodites. If they are not eaten, they eventually settle to the ocean floor and attach to a hard surface. Once attached, they metamorphose into a coral polyp and begin to grow, dividing in half. As more and more polyps are added, a coral colony develops and eventually begins to reproduce.
New individuals produced asexually mature faster. Process does not depend on external factors which may fail such as pollination. In return, the offspring produced will share the characteristic of their parent identically.
The disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that it limits the evolutionary process. The offspring that is created through this process is virtually identical to the parent, almost always belonging to the same species. Advantage of regeneration is: from a part whole new organsim can grow and disadvantage is that a injury,cut part is required for new progeny. An advantage would be that you could regrow certain things in your body. The disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that organisms do not receive a mix of traits from both parents.
An organism that is born through asexual reproduction only has the DNA from the one parent. In fact, the offspring is genetically an exact copy of the parent. This can cause problems for the individual.
Asexual reproduction includes fission, budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis, while sexual reproduction is achieved through the combination of reproductive cells from two individuals.
Some grow a new structure on the stump of the old one. By such regeneration whole organisms may dramatically replace substantial portions of themselves when they have been cut in two, or may grow organs or appendages that have been lost. Grafting and budding can be very well adopted to convert inferior plant of established trees into superior one. The disadvantages of budding are the same as with grafting, with some notable additions. Since single buds are not as strong as stem sections, they are more susceptible to environmental pressures.
Budding allows a cell to still reproduce, but without the advantages of the variety introduced by sexual reproduction. During spring, the environmental conditions are conducive for active growth of plants. Budding is the transfer of a bud from 1 plant to another plant. Budding is most frequently used to multiply a variety that cannot be produced from seed.
It is a common method for producing fruit trees, roses and many varieties of ornamental trees and shrubs.
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